The movement of Chan Buddhism beyond China unfolded less as a single event and more as a pattern of pilgrimage, study, and adaptation. Korean, Japanese, and Vietnamese monks were drawn to the great monastic centers of China, where they encountered a style of practice that emphasized meditation and direct realization. Returning home as lineage holders, they did not simply transplant a foreign system; rather, they wove Chan methods into the religious and cultural fabric already present. In this way, Chan did not spread as a rigid institution, but as a living current that could take on new forms while preserving its contemplative core.

In Korea, this current came to be known as Seon. From the late Silla period onward, Korean monks traveled to Tang China, studied under Chan masters, and then founded Seon communities upon their return. Figures such as Doui are remembered for transmitting Southern Chan lineages, which later contributed to the formation of the “Nine Mountain Schools” and the broader Seon tradition. Over time, Seon practice became deeply influential, yet it remained intertwined with doctrinal study rather than standing entirely apart from other forms of Korean Buddhism. The Korean reception of Chan thus shows a pattern of integration rather than replacement.

In Japan, the Chan stream that became Zen arrived in several waves and gradually crystallized into distinct schools. Early on, Chan-style meditation was absorbed into existing traditions such as Tendai and Shingon, without forming a separate identity. Later, monks like Eisai and Dōgen traveled to Song China, received transmission in the Linji (Rinzai) and Caodong (Sōtō) lineages, and then established Rinzai and Sōtō Zen on Japanese soil. Their efforts were supported by powerful patrons, including members of the warrior class and regional elites, allowing Zen monasteries to flourish. Over time, these institutions became closely associated with both spiritual training and cultural pursuits, while still grounded in meditative discipline.

In Vietnam, the Chan inheritance is known as Thiền and reflects a long history of contact with both Chinese and, in some accounts, Indian sources. Early Thiền lineages are associated with figures such as Vinitaruci and later Vô Ngôn Thông, whose teachings helped root meditative practice in Vietnamese Buddhist life. Subsequent developments, including the Trúc Lâm school under royal leadership, show how Thiền could be harmonized with Confucian values and indigenous sensibilities. Throughout these transformations, Thiền coexisted and blended with other Mahāyāna currents, such as Pure Land devotion, rather than standing in isolation.

Across Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, several common threads can be discerned in the spread of Chan. Monastic travel to Chinese centers, the occasional journey of Chinese masters abroad, and the prestige of Chinese Buddhist culture all played decisive roles. Royal and aristocratic patronage provided the material and institutional support needed for Chan-style communities to take root. Translation and study of Chan texts, together with the transmission of seated meditation and teachings on sudden awakening, allowed these traditions to speak to local concerns while maintaining a recognizable continuity. The result was not three identical replicas of Chinese Chan, but three related, locally grounded expressions—Seon, Zen, and Thiền—each bearing the imprint of both its Chinese source and its native soil.