Within the Madhyamaka tradition associated with Nāgārjuna, the central insight is that all phenomena are characterized by emptiness (śūnyatā), meaning they lack any inherent existence or self-nature (svabhāva). This does not imply sheer non-existence, but rather that nothing exists independently or with a fixed, substantial essence. Emptiness applies universally—to persons, things, and even to what is conventionally called nirvāṇa—so that no phenomenon can stand on its own. In this way, emptiness is less a metaphysical substance and more a critical perspective that loosens attachment to any supposed ultimate ground.

Closely intertwined with this is the principle of dependent origination (pratītyasamutpāda), according to which all phenomena arise in dependence upon causes, conditions, parts, and conceptual designation. Because things are dependently originated, they are empty of intrinsic being; and because they are empty, they can arise and function dependently. This mutual implication of emptiness and dependent origination allows Madhyamaka to affirm the efficacy of causal relations without positing any underlying, independent reality. The world of experience thus operates as a web of interdependent events rather than a collection of self-sufficient entities.

Madhyamaka articulates this vision through the doctrine of the two truths: conventional truth (saṃvṛti-satya) and ultimate truth (paramārtha-satya). On the conventional level, distinctions, persons, and objects function in ordinary life, and phenomena can be spoken of as existing in a pragmatic sense. On the ultimate level, the same phenomena are seen as empty of inherent nature. These are not two separate worlds, but two ways of apprehending one and the same reality—one that takes appearances at face value, and one that recognizes their lack of intrinsic foundation.

This perspective is described as a “Middle Way” that avoids the extremes of eternalism and nihilism. Eternalism is rejected because nothing possesses permanent, independent essence; nihilism is rejected because, even though empty, phenomena still arise, function, and have consequences on the conventional level. Madhyamaka employs the tetralemma (catuṣkoṭi) to show the inadequacy of clinging to any fixed position—existence, non-existence, both, or neither—regarding phenomena. Through such analysis, attachment to rigid views is undermined, and even Madhyamaka’s own formulations are treated as skillful means rather than dogmas to be grasped.

From this standpoint, liberation is associated with a non-conceptual wisdom (prajñā) that directly realizes emptiness and brings an end to mental proliferation around inherently existing things. When the mind no longer reifies phenomena, a profound quiescence becomes possible, free from the compulsive grasping that fuels suffering. Yet this insight does not negate ethical responsibility or the meaningfulness of practice, since conventional reality—though empty—remains the arena in which karma operates and compassionate conduct unfolds.