Within Vaishnavism, several major Vedantic schools explore the relationship between Vishnu (or Krishna) as the supreme reality, individual souls, and the universe, each with its own nuanced vision. Vishishtadvaita, associated with Ramanuja, teaches a “qualified non-dualism,” where Brahman is one, yet the souls and the world are real and inseparable attributes or modes of that one reality. The soul remains distinct, yet utterly dependent, and liberation is understood as eternal, loving service to Vishnu, attained through devotion, knowledge, and self-surrender. Dvaita, formulated by Madhva, emphasizes an unbridgeable dualism: God, souls, and matter are eternally distinct, with multiple fundamental differences structuring reality. Here, liberation lies in realizing one’s eternal difference from and dependence on Vishnu, with divine grace and devotion playing a central role.

Other Vaishnava schools articulate various forms of “difference-and-non-difference” between God, soul, and world. Nimbarka’s Dvaitadvaita (or Dvaitādvaita) holds that the soul and the universe are both different from and non-different from Brahman, often illustrated by the relation of the sun and its rays—distinct yet of the same nature and utterly dependent. Vallabha’s Shuddhadvaita, or “pure non-dualism,” affirms that only Krishna as Brahman truly exists and that the world is a real, divine manifestation rather than an illusion; souls are expressions of Krishna’s blissful nature, temporarily obscured by ignorance, and are restored through grace-filled devotion. Caitanya’s Achintya-bhedabheda, foundational for Gaudiya Vaishnavism, teaches that the soul and the world are simultaneously one with and different from Krishna in a way that surpasses ordinary logical categories, and it gives special prominence to loving devotion expressed through chanting the divine names.

These schools, while differing in metaphysical emphasis, converge in recognizing Vishnu or Krishna as the supreme reality and in placing bhakti at the heart of spiritual life. Some traditions further develop distinctive devotional lineages and practices within these philosophical frameworks, such as streams rooted in Vishishtadvaita that elaborate nuanced views on grace and ritual, or traditions that focus especially on Krishna in intimate forms like the child Krishna or the divine couple Radha-Krishna. Across this spectrum, the shared thread is a vision of the soul as utterly dependent on the supreme Lord and invited into a relationship of loving service, where philosophical insight and devotional practice mutually illuminate the path to liberation.